NORTH AMERICAN TRIBES

Comparing and Contrasting Essay
Work of Group

APACHES AND CHEYENNES

Nowadays, the human being exists thanks to ancient native tribes in all countries. We remember these tribes because they left us their cultures or traditions for we could survive. Two of the most relevant civilizations of North America were the Cheyennes and the Apaches because their culture and traditions were a support in order to understand the present. Both shared their remarkable event, the ambush by the enemy army of each tribe. Moreover, although the Cheyennes and the Apaches tribes lived in the different states, they had more similarities than differences.

Although, there had been a substantial amount of convergence between the Cheyennes and the Apaches, they were great warriors, and their heroes were killed in an ambush by enemy armies. In spite of this fact their legacies continue to exist currently. Moreover, these events were transcendental because they changed the order of civilizations and it affected the hierarchical organization of the tribes

Nevertheless, these tribes kept some differences regarding the heroes. The name of each hero is in the Apaches Geronimo, and in the Cheyennes is Roman Nose. Another difference is that when these heroes died the Apaches were located in New Mexico, but the Cheyennes were located between Minnesota and Missouri river. This is the most important event because the hero was the leader in each tribe. At the moment of the ambush, the Cheyennes were migrating to another state; on contrary the Apaches were not migrating, they stayed in their place.

In summary, these cultures had heroes who were natural warrior that offered their life in order to respect and maintain their land, customs and traditions. Therefore, these tribes were the most relevant in North America and they deserve to be reminded by people of these times.

By Lina Parra
Sofía Vargas
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Comparing and Contrasting Essay
Work of Group

CULTURES FOR DISCOVER

The North American tribes are a treasure invaluable that now peole need to maintain and preservate in order to understand the present; the Apache and the Inuit are relevant tribes that even stay in the world. Currently, the Apache and the Inuit tribes share more similarities than differences in their life style, which means that these civilizations are united by their legacy. Nowadays, they have a significant role in society and they expect to maintain their culture and traditions.

The Apache and Inuit tribes were traditionally hunters, men were responsible for this activity and they taught the children to hunt bears, fish and buffalos; whereas women stayed at home where they cooked.

Additionally their tribes were polygamy, it means men could have more than one wife and both tribes accepted this situation as part of their culture. Each tribe have a hero and they were some differences in their personality, The Shamans or Eskimo were thought to have special abilities in relating to the supernatural powers. On contrary, “Geronimo’s manipulation of his image helped turn him in the American imagination from demon to hero, and he remains the icon of mad courage he was for Second World War paratroopers who shouted “Geronimo!” when they jumped out of planes”[1]

Nevertheless, these tribes have some differences like while Apache have cultivation, in contrast, the Inut tribe don´t have it because they live in the ice. Moreover, in the Inut tribe, the father was the head of the house while in the Apache tribe, the mother was. In spite of, both believed in the religion and the existence of higher, the Inuts thought that they didn’t need to worship or pray. On the contrary, the Apaches believed in the necessity to pay tribute to God.

In summary, these cultures are a legacy that shows variety of life styles the two relevant cultures like the Apache and Inuts. These tribes show the past ways that the ancestor natives had to cover in order to organize the culture and their customs. Although, these cultures have some similities and differences, the Apache as relevan as the Inut.

By Lina Parra
Sofía Vargas
Mónica Romero

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[1] http://www.cubanow.net/global/loader.php?&secc=1&c=2&item=1189

INTRODUCTION

"Barely a thousand years ago, a small band of nomads abandoned their lands and reached what is today the American Southwest. There they lived and developed their own unique culture. The nomads called themselves Tinneh, “the people,” but in time they would be known by names given to them by others- the Apache.

These indigenous peoples of North America speak a Southern AthabaskanAthabaskan speakers of Alaska and western Canada. The modern term Apache excludes the related Navajo people. However, the Navajo and the other Apache groups are clearly related through culture and language and thus are considered Apachean. Apachean peoples formerly ranged over eastern Arizona, northwestern Mexico, New Mexico, and parts of Texas and the Great Plains[1]. (Apachean) language, and are related linguistically to the

Throughout all those years, the Apache developed a distinct social organization. Its fundamental unit was the family. Not only families were important to the Apache, but also its formation, the way it was managed, and their next generations were significant to them".

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CHILDHOOD

"The Apache culture concerned about the children very much. As soon as a baby was born, the parents put it in a cradleboard, which was made of an oak frame covered with buckskins. The cradleboard was made especially for that baby, and the parents would hang an amulet on the cradleboard in order to protect the baby from evil. On the other hand, the mother would punch a hole on the baby’s earlobes so that the child would hear to the right things and be obedient.¹ Maybe it was because of that reason, the Apache children were usually obedient and well behaved. If the children were naughty, which was rare, the parents would punish them by threats. Although the Apache parents were proud and fond of their children, they seldom spoiled their children. For instance, the parents would ignored their children if they cried, unless they were actually hurt.²

In the Apache culture, two ceremonies took place during the childhood. The first one was the first haircutting rite. In the spring after the child outgrew the cradleboard, a di-yin, a medicine man, cut the child’s hair very short, leaving only a few strand of hair. The purpose of this ceremony was to ensure that the children had a good health as they grew up. After childhood, haircuts were thought to bring bad luck, so adults rarely cut their hair. The second ceremony that would be held during the childhood was the moccasin ceremony. It took place when the child was two years old. In this ceremony, the children were dressed in new clothes and moccasins. Then the children walked in the direction of east on a trail of pollen. The di-yin prayed that the child would have a long and successful journey through life.³

One of the most important celebrations for the Apaches is their coming of age festival for the young women of the tribe. The Mescalero Apaches celebrate this when the young Apache female has her first period. The festival is a four day event which will bring the young girl into womanhood. The entire tribe gathers to celebrate and a special teepee is constructed and cattail fronds (which are symbolic of renewal) are placed in a carpet for the entrance of her teepee. Once inside the teepee, she kneels down on clothed pollen - colored buckskin. A “god mother” puts pollen across the cheeks and the nose of the girl and then pushes her towards a tray. On this ray are various sacred ritual objects and the girl walks around the tray four times. Every night, the young girl dances in her teepee until midnight, and outside of her tent the rest of her tribe feasts and celebrates. On the last day the Shaman, with a sun symbol in his palm, blesses her. If the girl submits to the rite, she will, for the rest of her days, be considered a “good woman,” and a good wife".⁷ [1]

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[1] http://members.tripod.com/Archaeology_Man/religion.html

TRAINING AND DISCIPLINE

"Teaching the children to become good adults was an important task for the Apache families. As the Apache children grew up, their elders taught them skills they would need to be productive and resourceful adults. The children in the Apache culture did not learn at school. It was because Apaches believed “that children should learn through observation and experience, not by being sat down and told what to do.”⁴ Although the children did not receive any formal education, they were well trained and well behaved. Since men and women played different roles in the Apache culture, the Apache boys and girls received different types of training.

The Apache boys were trained for the difficulties of raiding and war. They did not learn from the books, but learned by listening to their fathers’ or grandfathers’ stories of their experiences in hunting. They also learned by listening tales of the historic deeds of the Apaches. Besides to learn by listening, the Apache boys also learned by practicing. Their fathers made bows and arrows for their sons, and they showed the boys how to use the weapons and made them practiced until they became skillful. The Apache boys learned what they needed to know to be successful in the hunt all from their older men in the family. As a boy reached his sixteenth birthday, he was expected to be skillful in hunting and was ready to take his manhood test. For the test, the boy had to go on four raids with the men of his group. If the boy did well on the four raids, he was thought to be a man. This meant that he was free to marry, hunt, and raid with the men of his band.⁵

Since the women had to be able to guard the camp while the men were away, they were also taught to take care of horses, to use weapons, and to hunt small games. While the boys were being trained to be good hunters, the girls were taught by their mothers about food gathering, cooking, tanning deer hides, sewing, and basket weaving. Moreover, the girls were taught how to build the family’s wickiup and to take care for younger children. As the girl was about thirteen years old, she was said to be ready for adulthood, and a coming-of-age ceremony called Nah-ih-es was held for her. It was a four days long ceremony which celebrated a young girl ‘s entry into womanhood. The ceremony was the most important event in a young girl’s life, and after the ceremony, the girl was ready for marriage".⁶

KINDSHIP

"In the early Apaches, kinship system stands an extremely important role in their culture. The major social organization they had was the matriarchal system in which mother represents the head of the family. The descents and children all belonged to the mother’s sides. Even now, the matriarchal system is still used by some Apache tribes.⁹ These tribes are all consisted of a number of clans or extended matriarchal families. The main reason of obtaining such kind of organization is to mobilize the group faster and easier to safety (seguridad) locations. Also, they can move, have combat and retreat (retirada) more rapidly and achieve (conseguir) the goal safer.

Instead (en cambio) of individual households, most Apache families were consisted of family groups. In a group, it usually is made of grandparents, unmarried children, married daughters, their husbands, and of course, their children.¹⁰ In the past, most of the Apaches were matrilocal. Married Apache would move and reside with his wife’s family rather than his own family. He would no longer be responsible of his own mother’s family but the family of his wife’s side. Even though a married son would live with his wife’s side, he could never look at his mother-in-law. Whenever he wanted to tell something, he would have to transmit the information by another person. Although being matrilocal was a major issue, nonetheless there were sons, especially ones who were the only born in the family, that brought his wives with him and live with his parents.

Other than the matrilocal system, there is also the matrilineal system in which the descents would be traced through either of his parent’s side. In such a kind of system, an individual would either belong to his mother’s side or his father’s side. If he belonged to his mother’s side, this would be called matrilineal, but if he belonged to his father’s side, he would then be said to be patrilineal. A person would never belong to both sides of his family. The only exception in the past was the Chiricahua Apaches because they were said to be bilateral, treating maternal and paternal relatives the same.

Even today, matrilocal and matrilineal systems both occupy a great role in Apaches’ lives and their social organizations". (11)

MARRIAGE

"Marriage was a crucial event for the Apache culture. It was usually arranged by the boy’s parents. When a couple decided to marry, the representative of the man's family bestowed gifts upon the relatives of his intended bride. As soon as the marriage was approved, a wedding ceremony took place. Although the ceremony was not romantic, its processes were unique enough to make the wedding memorable. The wedding ceremony began with carrying a large basin made of buffalo hide to a secluded place. After filling the basin with fresh water, the bride and groom would step into it, holding hands. There they awaited the appearance of both sets of parents, who had to acknowledge the matrimony. After all those rituals, the party walked together to the bride's camp and joined a public dance; this would end this would end the whole wedding ceremony.⁷

After the marriage, the wedded couple developed close bonds between spouses and their in-laws. The husband provided for the wife's relatives and fulfilled their wishes. If the wife died, this life-long relationship would still continue. On the other hand, the man had to treat his parents-in-law with great respects, especially to his mother-in-law. The man could not look at her, speak directly to her, or be in the same room with her at the same time. It was because having direct contact with the mother-in-law was counted as disrespectful. The Apache man also treated his father-in-law with respect. They could only speak to each other in a reserved manner for sometimes. These behaviors toward their parents-in-law were extremely important in Apache society.

The Apache man could have more than one wife. But since not many men were rich enough to support more than one family, such practice was rare. Another reason that polygamy was rare in the Apache culture was that the men did not want to get into trouble of avoiding two mothers-in-law. But such problem could be avoided by marrying sisters.

If a man had more than one wife, each of them and her children would live in a separate wickiup. The husband usually kept his personal belongings in his first wife’s wickiup. Moreover, the first wife was considered as the leader of the other wives; she directed the work of the other women.

Despite the close relationship developed between the couple's families, divorce happened to the Apache culture also. Failure to fulfill the duties of family life was the principal causes of divorce. If the woman wanted to divorce his husband, all she had to do was to throw her husband’s personal belongings outside the house under a tree. If a man want to divorce his wife, he could tell her that he was going hunting and would not return. The divorced man or woman usually remarried immediately. It was because a single adult did not fit into the social and economic pattern of Apache society".⁸

DEATH

"Death in a family had great effects. For instance, no one would live in a wickiup in which a death had taken place. And also, the Apache never called their dead relatives by their names, but always called them “that girl,” “that boy,” “that woman or man.”¹²The Apache fear of the dead and everything connected with them. Thus, they usually buried the dead the same day they died in order to avoid any contacts with them. The Apache made the burial as far away as possible. It was either took place in the ground or in a hole in the rock. On one hand, the personal belongings of the dead and their wickiups were burned or destroyed. On the other hand, the family moved to a new site immediately. Their movement mustn’t be far, and it might just be to a neighboring field. The main purpose of doing so is to trick the ghost. After their arrival to a new place, the deaths’ relatives would also change their hairstyle to avoid the ghost of recognizing them. Apache Indians would never approach graves even though the buried were their friends are relatives.

They believed that anyone who mentioned or even thought about the death would bring the ghost back. Besides, they also suspect anyone who approaches the grave to be considered as a witch. The main reason of their dodging the ghost is because they were afraid that it would return and seek revenge on them. Also, if the dead was not buried properly, they were believed to return and give punishment to the one who buried them of their neglect. In brief, Death stands as a significant event in Apache family".¹³

FOOD

"The Apaches were nomadic hunter (casador)-gatherers (congregado) - hunting of wild (salvaje) game and gathering of cactus fruits and other wild plant foods. . They chased any wild game located within (dentro de) their territory, especially deer and rabbits. When necessary, they lived off the land by gathering wild berries, roots, cactus fruit and seeds of the mesquite tree. They planted some corn, beans, and squash as crops. They were extremely hardy prior to the arrival of European diseases, and could live practically naked in zero temperature.

Hunting is a part of daily life - for food, clothing, shelter, blankets. Apache hunted deer, wild turkeys, rabbits, buffalo, bears, mountain lions. There was no fishing. Eagles were hunted for their feathers.

They exchanged buffalo hides, tallow and meat, bones that could be worked into needles and scrapers for hides, and salt from the desert with the Pueblos for pottery, cotton, blankets, turquoise, corn and other goods. But at times they simply saw what they wanted and took it. They became known among the Pueblo villages by another name, Apachu, "the enemy"".

CLOTHING

"The primitive dress of the men was deerskin shirt, leggings, and moccasins. They were never without a loin-cloth. A deerskin cap with attractive symbolic ornamentation was worn. The women wore short deerskin skirts and high boot top moccasins". [15]

TODAY'S APACHES

"In the United States right now, there are more than fifty thousand Apache Indians. Most of these Indians lived in area such as Arizona or New Mexico because of the effects of reservations. Apache children are allowed to attend school today and many of them have become successful in the society. For example, Allan Houser has become a world known famous artist. Besides in education, Apaches have also been very active in business and industries. Many of the Apaches’ social customs had changed, too. For instance, Apaches wouldn’t publicize announcements about their wedding in the past. But now, they are willing to post the information even on the newspaper. Even though the Apaches had lost their lands, freedom, and numerous other things, they still keep most of ancient traditions and ceremonies with them and these are their the most valuable estate".¹⁴

CONCLUSION

"Apache Indians have different cultures and backgrounds compared to Americans. They have their own values and ways of making decision, and they view their family in a totally different aspect. Even though they are now able to keep their tradition and culture, and there are laws protecting them, most of the Apaches still felt unfair in the society, and wanted to seek equality. They wanted to have the same opportunities in education and in working as most Americans. They wanted to obtain more respect and have their skills being accepted without racial prejudice. On one side, they would like to adapt to White man’s culture, on the other, they wanted to keep their traditional culture. Apaches wanted to live in an environment with justice, equality, dignity and of course, maintain their Apache pride".

LINA MARÍA PARRA INDEPENDET WORK

INTRODUCTION

The Apache tribe consists of six subtribes, such us, Western Apache, Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan and Kiowa. The Apache tribe was located the mountains and plains of southern Arizona and New Mexico, and also in Mexico.

"The Apache Indian migrated to the Southwest from Northern Canada in the 1500's. The Apache indian history says it was the other way around, that most of the Athapaskan speaking people migrated to the North and a few stayed in their homeland. In any event, it is generally agreed that about 5,000 Apaches lived in the Southwest at the end of the 1600's”

Website: http://www.greatdreams.com/apache/apache-tribe.htm


THE APACHE FAMILY

"All Apachean peoples lived in extended family units (or family clusters) that usually lived close together with each nuclear family in separate dwellings. An extended family generally consisted of a husband and wife, their unmarried children, their married daughters, their married daughters' husbands, and their married daughters' children. Thus, the extended family is connected through a lineage of women that live together (that is, matrilocal residence), into which men may enter upon marriage (leaving behind his parents' family). When a daughter was married, a new dwelling was built nearby for her and her husband. Among the Navajo, residence rights are ultimately derived from a head mother. Although the Western Apache usually practiced matrilocal residence, sometimes the eldest son chose to bring his wife to live with his parents after marriage. All tribes practiced sororate and levirate marriages.

All Apachean men practiced varying degrees of avoidance of his wife's close relatives — often strictest between mother-in-law and son-in-law. The degree of avoidance differed in different Apachean groups. The most elaborate system was among the Chiricahua where men must use indirect polite speech toward and were not allowed to be within visual sight of his relatives that he was in an avoidance relationship with. His female Chiricahua relatives also did likewise to him.

Several extended families worked together as a local group, which carried out certain ceremonies, and economic and military activities. Political control was mostly present at the local group level.

Local groups were headed by a chief, a male who had considerable influence over others in the group due to his effectiveness and reputation. The chief was the closest societal role to a leader in Apachean cultures. The office was not hereditary and often filled by members of different extended families. The chief's leadership was only as strong as he was evaluated to be — no group member was ever obliged to follow the chief. The Western Apache criteria for evaluating a good chief included: industriousness, generosity, impartiality, forbearance, conscientiousness, and eloquence in language.

Many Apachean peoples joined together several local groups into bands. Band organization was strongest among the Chiricahua and Western Apache, while in the Lipan and Mescalero it was weak. The Navajo did not organize local groups into bands perhaps because of the requirements of the sheepherding economy. However, the Navajo did have the outfit, a group of relatives that was larger than the extended family, but not as large as a local group community or a band".

Website:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache


THE APACHE'S HEROE

"Geronimo was born Goyathlay (One Who Yawns) in 1829, and got his better-known name from the way Mexican soldiers mispronounced it. It was in Mexico that he learned to hate and fight, after his first wife and three children were killed in a massacre by the Mexican army. The guerrilla tactics he used against settlers and soldiers in Arizona had been developed by the Apaches over several centuries, ever since the Spanish conquests.

The Chiricahua Apaches who recognized Geronimo as a war leader (although he was born a Bedonkohe Apache) were semi-nomads who supplemented farming with raiding, and so guerrilla warfare came naturally; when the US took the southwest from Mexico in 1848 the continued their insurgency. Geronimo and his warriors were highly resourceful in adapting the technology of their industrialized enemy –especially rifles. At the beginning of the Apache wars they were still relying on the bow and arrow, but the more whites they killed, the more guns they acquired.

Geronimo finally surrendered after negotiations in 1887, but the US reneged on all promises and treated him as a common prisoner. He and hundreds of his people eked out an existence in prisons far from their homeland until his death at Fort Still, Oklahoma, in 1909. The reason there are so many photographs of him is that he learned to exploit the one resource left –his own name and image. He charged to have his picture taken and kept a stock of photographs for sale, charging extra for his signature. He has signed the picture in which he wears what he called a “war bonnet”. He also sold the bonnet.

Geronimo’s manipulation of his image helped turn him in the American imagination from demon to hero, and he remains the icon of mad courage he was for Second World War paratroopers who shouted “Geronimo!” when they jumped out of planes. The photographs here are not just records of a defeated warrior, but one who turned the tables on his captors to become more revered than any Bush is likely to be in American memory".

Webesite:http://www.cubanow.net/global/loader.php?&secc=1&c=2&item=1189

THE APACHE RITUALS

"For the apaches the world was in continuous movement and many of their rituals concentrated in immediate and spontaneous elements. The air, the wind, comprises of the people and the mineral beings, the same power that warmed up a sand grain, gave energy to the people"

"The legend White Mountain Apache on the ceremonies of the Water, the Hawk and the Snake is considered sagradas and of an importance much greater than myths of the emergencia. Histories narrate the origin of the ceremonies and provide direct suggestions exceeds how to direct them. A legend Jicarilla Apache describes the Killing fight between of Enemies and The one That Desire, and is used as it bases on the realized ceremonies of purification for people who have made contact with enemy with deads. Whatever it has been contaminated thus needs to be taken of return to the side of the life.

The ceremony includes a singer who represents the paper of Killing of Enemies and fights against the personified forces of the evil in Which Desire. The songs and the orations narrate the hard battle that in the end won Killing of Enemies"

Website:

1. http://mapahumano.fiestras.com/servlet/ContentServer?pagename=R&c=Articulo&cid=982959873625&pubid=982158433476
2. http://mapahumano.fiestras.com/servlet/ContentServer?pagename=R&c=Articulo&cid=1006201189034&pubid=982158433476

ESSAYS

Cuase - Effect Essay

American tribe Colonization

Apache is the name of an American native tribe; it is located in Arizona and New Mexico. The name of the tribe means enemy and was determined by Spanish colonists. They were fishermen, agriculturists and hunters. It was a powerful tribe and they did not want to lose and destroy their culture and beliefs, for that reason they lived in continuous confrontation with Spanish colonists.

First at all, during the Anglo-American colonization for new territory in the American west, they were with a great obstacle to be able colonized until the Pacific coasts. The suffered Apaches used firearms and horses to kill someone who was introduced in their territories. Many Spaniards, Mexican and Anglo-American died at the hands of the apaches.

On the other hand, the colonization also brought for the Tribe new changes, like styles life, because Spanish colonists brought new traditions that they wanted to implement. For example: they were barbarous and cruel, such as Spaniards had them reason to evangelize.

Introduce new cultures to establish in a society always brings a lot of problems; therefore the colonization of the culture Apache had had so many confrontations with the white colonists.

However, new experiences like colonization, also allow that world knows different culture and what had occurred with them.

By: Lina Maria Parra

Comparing and Contrasting Eassy

¿Alejandro Sanz and Miguel Bose are similar singer?

Nowadays, we can speak about different styles from music, because that we know different rates that transmit feelings. At the moment, the music of Alejandro Sanz has melodic rates directed to the enamored ones; Miguel Bose also represents the happiness to be love in its letters. Although the rates are similarities, their personalities are very different.

Alejandro Sanz and Miguel Bose were born in Spain and began their race in this country they are wining over with their lyrics song to men and women. Thanks to its successes they have had much audience in each of its concerts. Spite of, Miguel Bose is more old that Alejandro Sanz, Miguel Bose improve in new rates and musical lyrics.

However, they are some differents. Miguel Bose has not had children whereas who Alejandro Sanz has a small daughter to whom him has written some songs. These artist handle rates very different, so that. Moreover Miguel Bose is more expressive in the lyrics song, in contrast Alejandro Sanz is more sensible and loving. Another difference is in this times Miguel Bose lives in Madrid while Alexander San lives in Miami

All in all, both singers have been much successful in their better musical races and have helped to construct relationship with their songs. And but the important thing to make the society happy.

By: Lina María Parra

EXTRA CREDIT

Lyrics song

I just can't wait to be king

I'm gonna be a mighty king, so enemies beware!

I've never seen a king of beasts

With quite so little hair

I'm gonna be the mane event

Like no king was before

I'm brushing up on looking down

I'm working on my roar

Thus far a rather uninspiring thing

Oh, I just can't wait to be king

No one saying do this Now when I said that--

No one saying be there What I meant was--

No one saying stop that What you don't realize--

No one saying see here Now see here!

Free to run around all day That's definitely out--

Free to do it all my way!

I think it's time that you and I

Arranged a heart-to-heart

Kings don't need advice

From little hornbills for a start

If this is where the monarchy is headed

Count me out

Out of service, out of Africa

I wouldn't hang about

This child is getting wildly out of wing

Oh, I just can't wait to be king

Everybody look left

Everywhere you look I'm--

Standing in the spotlight

Not yet

Let every creature go for broke and sing

Let's hear it in the herd and on the wing

It's gonna be King Simba's finest fling

Oh, I just can't wait to be king!

Oh, he just can't wait to be king!

Oh, I just can't wait...

Just can't wait

To be king!

VOCABULARIO

Mighty: having, characterized by, or showing superior power or strength: mighty rulers.

Beasts: An animal other than a human, especially a large four-footed mammal.

Brushing: the act of brushing your teeth; "the dentist recommended two brushes a day"

Rather: Had or would rather, to prefer that or to: I had much rather we not stay. We would rather go for dinner after the show.

Arranged: to place in proper, desired, or convenient order; adjust properly: to arrange books on a shelf

Spotlight: A strong, focused light thrown upon a particular spot, as on a small area of a stage or in a television studio, for making some object, person, or group especially conspicuous

By: Lina María Parra

ARTICLES

In London, a rocking celebration of jewels

By Suzy Menkes
Published: June 16, 2008


LONDON: Don't mention the R-word - unless it is about rich red rubies, royal refinement or rocks that rock. Recession may be looming in Britain, with unemployment up and the economy on the slide, but London Jewellery Week kicked off with spectacular celebrations, from fireworks in the headquarters of the private bank Coutts to the cult architect Zaha Hadid showing a sculpted body piece embedded with Swarovski crystals.

And proving that money hasn't dried up as Prime Minister Gordon Brown reins in the super rich, the auction of Onassis gems, which fetched £6.8 million, or $13.3 million, at Christie's last week, smashed jewelry sale records.

Some of the events were serendipitous. Prince Dimitri of Yugoslavia, who had his glamorous aunt by marriage, Princess Michael of Kent, routing for him at his soirée, had no idea that London had launched a jewel season when he brought his hyper-colorful gems from his New York atelier to Partridge in Bond Street.

The royal-blood designer displayed a family amethyst that had left the Russia of the czars with his great-grandmother, Grand Duchess Vladimirovna. But it was worked into a modern, multicolored necklace with the gems hung on a hippie leather plait. The melding of old and new - for the guest list, as for the jewels - was the week's class act.

On the other side of town, Nadja Swarovski was bringing on the bling at Runway Rocks. Designers ranged from bravura jewelry specialists Shaun Leane and Johnny Rocket to the fashion wunderkind Christopher Kane (threading crystal ribbons through golden rings). They all showed different ways of embellishing the body: lighted with techno rubies by Hussein Chalayan; while the Indian designer Manish Arora created a multicolored skeleton worked on a bodysuit.

The inaugural Coutts London Jewellery Week (www.londonjewelleryweek.co.uk), in partnership with the London Development Agency, was energetic but unfocused. It encompassed anything from affordable engagement rings from Hatton Garden, the city's diamond district, to heritage pieces offered in the historic Burlington Arcade shopping passage to 50 contemporary jewel designers on display at the Tower of London. A multitude of retailers, craft workshops and especially staged events created a spotty celebration of the city's offerings.

Yet the basic concept of focusing on jewelry - at the same time as London's Graduate Fashion Week of catwalk shows - proved just how dynamic England is about pushing for creativity with an inimitable cosmopolitan mix of haute, hip and hippie.

"Jennifer Lopez has got one like that - have you seen her wearing it?" asked Stephen Webster, the jewelry designer with a star-studded clientele and a rock 'n' roll attitude. His exceptional pieces included J-Lo's curry-colored Tiger's eye ring and a "shark's jaws" ring, its gold "teeth" whitened with pavé diamonds and clenching a smoky quartz stone.

Theo Fennell, who is in the process of remodeling his role to concentrate on one-off designs and on training a new generation, said that he admired student creativity at the Royal College of Art (where the company bestows annual awards), Central Saint Martins and Birmingham Institute of Art and Design.

"I love the idea of London jewelry week, but it is going to need time to mature," said Fennell. "But people are realizing that this town is the best for schools and best for young jewelry designers

VOCABULARY:

looming: Asomar
headquarters: Jefaturas
Jewellery: Joyeria
Auction: Subasta
jewels: Joyas
ranged: Extendido

Car bomb kills dozens in Baghdad
By Richard A. Oppel Jr. and Ali Hamid Published: June 17, 2008

BAGHDAD: The deadliest attack in the capital in more than three months killed at least 51 people and wounded 75 when a car bomb exploded as shoppers were strolling through a busy Shiite neighborhood market on Tuesday evening.

The blast struck a crowded bus terminal near a market in Hurriya, a northwest Baghdad district that once had a large population of Sunnis but after the invasion saw horrific ethnic cleansing by Shiite militias and death squads, who killed or drove thousands of Sunnis out of the area.

The blast left survivors and relatives of the victims enraged and on edge. One man lost 11 relatives, including five female cousins. At a courtyard in front of the Khadamiyah Hospital morgue, people screamed, wept and shrieked. Some cursed the government for allowing the blast to happen while others called on God for revenge.

People fleeing the blast site who were interviewed by a New York Times reporter at a cordon set up around the scene of the attack said there had been two bombs, not the single explosion that Iraqi officials described. Iraqi forces sealed off the area and allowed in only ambulances and police vehicles. One worker at the morgue of nearby Khadamiyah hospital said that 35 to 40 bodies had been brought to the hospital within the first two hours.

The bomber struck as Iraqi and American troops were attending a neighborhood meeting nearby, according to one Iraqi policeman interviewed at the scene. After the blasts, the policeman said, some people angrily surrounded humvees and started throwing rocks and other objects. A rumor swept the crowd of frantic survivors that there was still one car bomb left that had yet to be detonated.

According to an official at the interior ministry, the casualty toll was the worst for any attack in Baghdad since early March, when a two-stage bomb blast in the Karrada shopping district killed at least 54 people and wounded 123


VOCABULARY:

Deadliest: El más mortal
shoppers: Compradores
crowded: Apretado
blast: Estallar
forces: Fuerzas
angrily: Airadamente
wounded: Herido
bodies: Cuerpos
revenge: Venganza

Website: http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/06/17/style/fjewel.php. visit: June 17, 2008

MÓNICA ROMERO IDEPENDENT WORK

An interesting tribe

Apache tribe arrived to the American Southwest in a migration of 500 years ago from Canada. It was a powerful tribe. They stared to fight with the white people. These tribes came to an end in 1886 when some were deported to Florida and Alabama. Although they lost their territory and their freedom, some of them continue to live in this territory because of several factors.

Firstly, when Spanish people arrived, some Apache went to other territories which are now reserves in Arizona, Nuevo Méxicoand Oklahoma. Consequently, they created new strategies to continue existing as a tribe.

Secondly, Apaches were very careful with their families. They were very lovely. That’s the reason why they could give help and share with the other Apaches.
They had a goog familly init as a result of this they crested close link inside the tribe.

Finally, their survival is the result of their migrations and constant fights to live. Additionally, the love for their costumes supported their culture.

Mónica Romero
200410831
Intermediate
Essay CAUSE AND EFFECT

____________________________________________________________________

Changes in the clothing ( correction) CAUSE ANND EFFECT ESSAY

Nowadays people every day want explorer new things and created new lifestyles , as a consequently of the mixture of cultures and that people have more freedom, thought people`s way of thinking , in this moment the world is more freely and adapts to some change. Besides globalization has had influence in the changes the mode in people in some places of the world.

Fistly In some places of the world people used the clothing depending on the culture. For example, in some countries the women have to wearing long dresses and covered her faces, she doesn´t use Short skirts or neckline blouses. But at the present in other places of the people use diferent styles depending each person`s likes and the personality probably the people who saw very informally is because to facilitate the things or possible they like feel comfortable.

Secondly globalization in some places of the world has had influence in the changes the customs of the people as a result fast food, buildings, Mc Donals. The mode also meets affected because the colombian often use jeans, Slippers and T-shirts., in addition the people with the mass media or computers can see and adapt news customs this technologies contribute to copy the ways to dressing.

Finally, is very common to see people with news clothing or new mode create by them depending their thought or convictions, as a result the mixture of cultures or the differents each person´s likes.

rituals apache tribe
“Apache Tribe: The Apaches are one of about 500 aboriginal societies who once occupied North America. They have a four-day rite of puberty -- the Apache Sunrise Ceremony, called "na'ii'ees." It "...is one of the most important events in an Apache female's life." In an act of unusual bigotry and religious intolerance, the U.S. government banned this and other ceremonies in the early 1900s. It was only decriminalized in 1978 when the American Indian Religious Freedom Act was signed into law. The ritual "...is intended to imbue the girls with the spirit and characteristics of White Painted Woman, the Apache culture's first woman - also called Esdzanadehe or Changing Woman. The girls' skin is painted and covered with a sacred mixture of pollen and clay, which they must not wash off during the entire ceremony." The ritual itself is physically demanding. The girls have to pray, dance for hours, sit with their backs straight, and perform other physically draining activities. They are given instruction in sexuality, self-esteem, dignity, confidence, and healing ability. They are told to pray towards the east at dawn and in the four cardinal directions, which represent the four stages of life”[1].


“Customs and Religion.
In traditional Apache culture, women gathered food, wood, and water, while men went out to hunt and raid. Most family units lived in wickiups—dome-shaped brush huts erected by the women—or in buffalo-hide tepees. Western Apache tribes were matrilineal; others apparently traced their descent through both parents. Polygamy was practiced when economic circumstances permitted; marriage could be terminated easily by either party. Religion was a fundamental part of Apache life. Among the best-known supernatural beings were the ga'ns, protective mountain spirits represented in religious rites such as the girls' puberty ceremony, still performed by Western Apaches.
In 1990 individuals claiming to be of Apache descent numbered 50,051 with many living on Indian reservations in Arizona and New Mexico. Farming, cattle herding, and tourist-related businesses are important economically; nevertheless, unemployment is high. Present-day culture is a mixture of traditional Apache beliefs, such as witchcraft, and contemporary U.S. elements” [2]

INDIAN DANCES
ART
“Men's Traditional Dance: Danced with exaggerated movement above the waist to simulate hunting, tracking or fighting but heavy, grounded, flat-footed lower body, this dance originated with members of warrior societies on the Great Plains. Costume includes an eagle feather bustle and hair roach made of porcupine quills. While many tribal gatherings today work to join and unite tribes from across the continent, homogenizing some of the dances to suit all, Men's Traditional dance remains tribe specific in terms of style and dress.
Women's Traditional Dance: This dance is extremely reserved in nature, simply a single or double step done in a circle. Sometimes an up and down movement is done while standing in place. Costume for Women's Traditional also remains tribal specific, sometimes with elaborate beadwork on long buckskin or trade cloth dresses”[3].
[1] http://www.religioustolerance.org/wicpuber.htm

[2] http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=201256


[3] http://www.thewildwest.org/interface/index.php?action=236

White Mountain Apache
The tradition and celebration of cultural behaviors is very important to the White Mountain Apache tribe. For example, when a girl reaches a time of her life known as "The Changing Woman", she goes through a phase of her first menstrual cycle. As a result, she is given a ceremonial dance that includes spiritual gifts and blessing as she enters womanhood. This ceremony is called "The Sunrise Dance". This traditional dance is still performed today, but is declining. The dance lasts four days, in which, it will test and provide her endurance. During the ceremony, the girl is believed to possess the power to heal. Furthermore, she is given sacred tools such as an eagle feather, an abalone shell, and a cane (to name just a few) that will protect and guide her throughout her adult life. In the next passages, I will discuss my personal experience and beliefs in this particular ceremony and how the people of the White Mountain tribe feel about the Sunrise Dance.
The tradition of the White Mountain Apache tribe is passed down from generation to generation. One traditional celebration is when a girl experiences her first menstrual cycle. This celebration is a ceremony called "The Sunrise Dance". It exemplifies the understanding of our Apache beliefs. The ceremony signifies a girl entering womanhood.
The Sunrise dance is performed on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation. However, it is decreasing, due to the introduction of the Christian religion that has changed some of the Apache's beliefs. 'in the Apache culture, ceremony or ritual symbolizes significant events or items. When a girl has her first menstrual cycle , she is changing from a girl into a woman. I feel the Sunrise dance is a very important part of an Apache girl's life because each stage of the dance is a learning experience. In the beginning of each stage of the dance, the girl is molded into a new woman.
The decision to have a Sunrise Dance for a girl is not made hastily. It comes from the traditional values and beliefs of the girl's family. The Apache family believes that the girl who performs the dance will be provided with special blessings. The family will support and encouraged the girl while she is performing the dance. By participating in the dance, the girl will keep the tradition alive. The decision to have the dance is not an easy task because of the financial expense, the preparation, the responsibilities, and the support of the kinship.
The next step after agreeing to have a Sunrise Dance, is the selection of god parent The godmother should be someone who will be an example and provide wisdom for the girl to follow in life. In addition, the godparent should be spiritually strong in the Apache way. When the selection has been made, the next step is to ask the god parents if they will accept the responsibilities of being traditional god parents to the special girl. Furthermore, I feel it is important for the chosen couple to have accomplished a lot of things already in their lives. Because the Sunrise dance takes place only during the summer season, it must be planned a year in advance. During the winter, the girl's parents would ask the god parents to sponsor the dance, which will be performed during the summer. Because the element of surprise is important, the request is made in the morning hours before the sun rises (3, 4, 5 a.m.). This is an important part. Since the parents of the child want the god parents to say yes, they give them no warning. On the chosen morning before they go to the future god parents, the family of the girl loads their vehicle with food and drinks to offer the couple to persuade them to accept. In addition, an eagle feather with a turquoise stone is given to the couple in appreciation of their acceptance.
http://courses.ed.asu.edu/margolis/spf301/virtual_classroom/apache.html

Family Life
Apache family life was close knit, and families tended to live together. Since Apaches are matrilineal—where descent is traced through one’s mother—the local group was typically an extended family where the fathers had married daughters or granddaughters of a woman, with each married couple keeping their own residence. Mothers and daughters were quite close, and much of their work (collecting, cooking, caring for children, etc.) was done together, further binding them during their lifetimes. Grandparents were often teachers of the young, teaching them skills and disciplining them to respect the customs and behavior of the group. Children of the same sex within the extended family were taught to cooperate, become close friends, and refrain from rivalry. Grandparents also taught the children that men married into the family protected their wife’s family, provided food for them, and obeyed them.
Typically, one man among the various extended families was perceived as the leader of the overall group. His leadership was based on his power to persuade the others to follow his directions. Individual families and/or persons were free to make up their own minds or to leave the group at will. Father Jimenez, a priest with many years working with other native peoples, was struck by the Lipan Apache when he labored at Mission San Lorenzo de Santa Cruz. He found them to be a proud people of great courage.
Daily or seasonal tasks carried out by the families were jointly shared among both men and women, although some tasks were more frequently carried out by one or the other. Collecting nuts or vegetables (such as agave) was usually undertaken by women. While men were the principal hunters and made most weaponry and horse trappings, women (particularly the Lipan women) participated in rabbit and antelope hunting. Women made baskets and tanned animal hides for making tipis and clothing, but men were known to repair or make clothing, especially if it was an item they would use.
http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/plateaus/peoples/apache.html

Mónica Romero
Cod:2004 10831

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING ESSAY

Shakira and Michael Jackson

They are two very famous music stars who are very well known all around the world. Although they are very good professionals and are the representatives of a generation, they have different styles. While Shakira sings pop music in Spanish and has recorded in some other languages, Michael Jackson sings only in English. However, Shakira has some good songs in English too, and these songs have been at the top of most important American Music Lists.
Neither Shakira nor Michael Jackson live in Colombia, but both live in the United States. Although he has more money than Shakira and has had the greatest records in sales and popularity, she spends her money better than him, by giving it to charity organizations in Colombia and internationally.
Both have sold large quantities of records but she is still producing songs and records in different languages like English and Portuguese while he has already retired. Also, he has a lot of legal problems with his ex-wives. In contrast, Shakira helps poor people in many countries of the world and is always supporting international organizations.
Both music stars have big fan clubs with many fans in different countries, but neither Shakira nor Michael Jackson can imagine the number of people in these clubs. In some countries there are more than twenty fan clubs with people who love their music and who like going to their concerts.
Michael Jackson has famous sisters and brothers, like Janeth Jackson and La Toya Jackson. They are also singers, but less famous than Michael. In contrast, Shakira’s family is not famous and live a normal life in Colombia and in The USA.

Although Michael married Elvis Presley’s daughter and has married again, he is single at the moment. In contrast, Shakira has never married but she has plans to do it with his boyfriend Antonio De La Rua.
Although Michael Jackson has two sons, they do not live with him. On the contrary, Shakira does not have any children, but she would love to have them when she marries.

As a conclusion of these descriptions, I would like to say that I like both but I prefer Shakira, her life and music because she is more modern at this moment, because she has a life without any big problems as Michael Jackson, and the most important: BECAUSE SHE IS THE BEST REPRESENTATIVE OF COLOMBIA IN THE WORLD.

Mònica Romero

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING ESSAY

Two famous presidents


There were two famous people in the United States they were president the United States in different years each one help to development of United States the different form. They are Kennedy and Carter.

Both was the president the United States Carter was born in 1924 while Kennedy was born in 1917, Kennedy was the most younger president in the history. Carter born in Georgia while Carter born in Massachussets. Kennedy established arms control and Carter negotiated a peace between Israel and Egypt. Although Carter received the prize nobel of the peace. On the contrary Kennedy was revolucionary for this reason he was Commander in the second world war.

Both were democrats however both created different programs to work in the United States. Carter worked with the poor people on contrast Kennedy worked in the education. Neither kennedy nor Carter created programs for the improvement of the health.

Both had blue eyes and blond hair. However Kennedy was taller than Carter. Carter liked the children and Kennedy too.

As a conclusion Kennedy and Carter worked for their country but they had different programs and knowledge to help their country because they made programs in agreement to their points of view. They come the diferent family with different costumes.

SOFÍA VARGAS INDEPENDENT WORK

THE APACHES

Tribes:

"The word Apache is believed to be derived from a Zuni word meaning "enemy".
The Apache Indians are divided into six sub-tribes
Bedonkohe....Be-don-ko-he
Chieahen....Chi-e-a-hen
Chihenne....Chi-hen-ne, (Ojo Caliente), (Hot Springs) Apaches
Chokonen....Cho-kon-en, Chiricahua Apache
Nedni....Nendi
White Mountain Apache"1

"These distinct groups can be organized by dialects:

The Western Apache (Coyotero) traditionally occupied most of eastern Arizona and included the White Mountain, Cibuecue, San Carlos, and Northern and Southern Tonto bands. San Carlos, Aravaipa, White Mountain, Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, and Cibecue in Arizona, Chiricahua and Mimbreno in Arizona and New Mexico, Mescalero (Faraon) in New Mexico and Mexico, Jicarilla (Tinde) in New Mexico and Colorado, Kiowa-Apache (Gataka) in Oklahoma, and Lipan in Texas and Mexico. Western Apache (Coyotero), Eastern Arizona.

They exchanged buffalo hides, tallow and meat, bones that could be worked into needles and scrapers for hides, and salt from the desert with the Pueblos for pottery, cotton, blankets, turquoise, corn and other goods. But at times they simply saw what they wanted and took it. They became known among the Pueblo villages by another name, Apachu, "the enemy""1.

APACHE WARRIORS

"The Apache's guerrilla war tactics came naturally and were unsurpassed. The name Apache struck fear into the hearts of Pueblo tribes, and in later years the Spanish, Mexican, and Anglo-American settlers, which they raided for food, and livestock.

The Apache and the Pueblos managed to maintain generally peaceful relations. But the arrival of the Spaniards changed everything. A source of friction was the activity of Spanish slave traders, who hunted down captives to serve as labor in the silver mines of Chihuahua in northern Mexico. The Apache, in turn, raided Spanish settlements to seize cattle, horses, firearms, and captives of their own.

The prowess of the Apache in battle became legend. It was said that an Apache warrior could run 50 miles without stopping and travel more swiftly than a troop of mounted soldiers"1.

FAMILY AND LIFESTILE

"Apache, lived as plainsmen in western Kansas and Texas. A strict code of conduct governed Apache life, based on strong family loyalties. Each Apache group was composed of extended families or clans. Basic social, economic, and political units based on female inherited leadership. The most important bond led from an Apache mother to her children and on to her children. Marriage within one's own clan is forbidden. When the son married his obligations from then on were to his mother-in-law's family.

Beyond this code of propriety and family obligations, the Apache shared a rich oral history of myths and legends and a legacy of intense religious devotion that touched virtually every aspect of their lives"1.

HERO

"Geronimo was born Goyathlay (One Who Yawns) in 1829, and got his better-known name from the way Mexican soldiers mispronounced it. It was in Mexico that he learned to hate and fight, after his first wife and three children were killed in a massacre by the Mexican army. The guerrilla tactics he used against settlers and soldiers in Arizona had been developed by the Apaches over several centuries, ever since the Spanish conquests. The Chiricahua Apaches who recognised Geronimo as a war leader (although he was born a Bedonkohe Apache) were semi-nomads who supplemented farming with raiding, and so guerrilla warfare came naturally; when the US took the southwest from Mexico in 1848 they continued their insurgency. Geronimo and his warriors were highly resourceful in adapting the technology of their industrialised enemy - especially rifles. At the beginning of the Apache wars they were still relying on the bow and arrow, but the more whites they killed, the more guns they acquired.

Geronimo finally surrendered after negotiations in 1887, but the US reneged on all promises and treated him as a common prisoner. He and hundreds of his people eked out an existence in prisons far from their homeland until his death at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, in 1909. The reason there are so many photographs of him is that he learned to exploit the one resource left - his own name and image. He charged to have his picture taken and kept a stock of photographs for sale, charging extra for his signature. He has signed the picture in which he wears what he called a "war bonnet". He also sold the bonnet"2.

SUNRISE DANCE: Women

"From early spring to late fall, Apache girls reaching maturity are honored by their tribe with the Sunrise Dance. This ancient ritual is a test of a girl's endurance and discipline, and a celebration of her womanhood. The Sunrise Dance typically lasts four days. During this time, the girl being honored is dancing almost constantly, to the accompaniment of over 100 songs. Although she is assisted by her godparents and friends, it's a difficult task. Each stage of the ceremony is precisely choreographed, and the girl is not permitted to falter. Beverly Malone, a member of the White Mountain Apache Tribe, is with the Fort Apache Cultural Center in Arizona. She tells us about the teachings contained in the songs and the symbols of the ceremony.

"This particular dance teaches Apache values of language, culture, food and love, prayers, respect, wisdom, cooperation, appreciation and endurance."

The Indian dancers used ankle wraps to accompany their dances. There are bells atatched to a strap of leather. When you move your leg the ankle wrap rattles and jingles. They also placed these on their knees, elbows, or ankles.

For most of the four days and nights, to songs and prayers, they dance, as well as run toward the four directions. During this time, they also participate in and conduct sacred rituals, receiving and giving both gifts and blessings, and experiencing their own capacity to heal.

In the early 1900s, when the U.S. government banned Native American spiritual practices and rituals, conducting the Sunrise Ceremony was an illegal act; as a result, its practice diminished, and those ceremonies that did occur were conducted secretly.

Women play a vital role in Apache culture, and the Sunrise Dance is a way for the entire community to recognize and celebrate the meaning and value of womanhood.

"Usually the women are the main ones that are the teachers, and they are the stronghold for the family. The children claim their mom's side of the clan, and the father's clan is just like the distant family clan. It's the woman that holds the family together -- that's the boss in the family."

The Apaches were hunter, farmers and seed gatherers. They knew every land feature in the plains. Apache women built irrigation ditches and planted corn. The crops were not very good, so hunters searched the land for deers, gophers, wild turkeys and lizards. The women gathered cactus fruit and acorns. The Apache loved raiding and warfare, and boys were trained for warfare since they were born. They could walk for miles without any food or water . They learned to hunt, stand guard, keep silent,and send and read smoke signals. When the boys were 15 years old they were ready to go to war. Young girls were trained by their mothers to do the household chores. The girls married very young. The daughters husband was not aloud to talk or see their mother-in-law.

Not until 1978, when the American Indian Religious Freedom Act was passed, was the Sunrise Ceremony openly re-established on most reservations. But even today, because of the expense and time involved - which also includes four days of preparation and four days of teaching and recovery - some girls celebrate for one or two days, rather than have four day ceremonies. The families of girls entering puberty in a particular year may also sponsor joint Sunrise ceremonies, in which two or more newly menstruating girls celebrate the rites of Changing Women together"3.

APACHE SYMBOLS

"The importance of the circle is depicted by the shape of the four sacred hoop symbols. The shape of many traditional homes is round, such as the Apache wickiup, the Navajo hogan, and the tipi of the Lakota. Religious ceremonies are performed in circular structures, such as in the hogan and the tipi. Traditional dances are also performed in a circle. The motion of the sun, moon, and stars across the sky is circular. The life paths of all creatures, including humans, are also circular.

Apache Hoop---Dee´ (San Carlos Apache) and Ndee´ (White Mountain Apache)

The Apache hoop is used in traditional ceremonies and the type of ceremony determines whether a single hoop or four hoops are used. The hoop represents the cycle of life from birth to death. It possesses special powers, which could be used, for example, to bless an individual when the hoop completely encircles the body. The hoop also has healing and protective powers.

The single Apache hoop has one of the four sacred colors of the tribe: black, green, (blue), yellow and white. These colors represent the four directions, the four seasons, and the four major divisions of the day. An eagle feather is tied at four locations on the hoop. To the Apache, and almost all tribes, the eagle is a sacred bird and its feathers are believed to have special powers.

The basket symbolizes one’s realm of existence with the center opening representing one’s birth into this world and the various designs representing the plains and sacred mountains among which one dwells.

The Apaches are commonly known for their incredible endurance and warfare skills. First arriving in the Southwest sometime between A.D.1000 and 1400, the Apaches carved out a home on the south side of the Rocky mountains. As early as 1540, the Apaches confronted Coronado in eastern New Mexico and were called "vaqueros." By the 1600's, they were also living in Arizona. Between 1656 and 1675, the Apaches continuously raided Spanish Settlers and Pueblo Indians in what is now known as New Mexico. In 1680, their population was approximately 5000. In 1692, the Spaniards reconquered New Mexico and the Apaches were starting to make enemies"3.

RELIGION AND CEREMONIES:

"The ceremonies are invariably called "dances." Among these are the rain dance, a puberty right, the sunrise dance for young women, a harvest and good crop dance, and a spirit dance. The Apache are devoutly religious and pray on many occasions and in various ways. Recreated in the human form, Apache spirits are supposed to dwell in a land of peace and plenty, where there is neither disease or death" 3.

"SONG OF APACHE INDIANS"

HUH WUHLI NICH

"Ha- nam-a yo- o ya hai huh-wurt . . .
far on the dessert redges stands the cactus

Ka- na - hu- va muh- muhk
lo the blossoms swaying

Ka- cho-wuch-chi ka-no- ya ki-moi
to and fro the blossoms swaying, swaying"3

APACHE RITHUALS, CERIMONIES, AND BELIEFS

"The Apache belived that there was once supernatural beings that lived with people.Today the Apache still belive that spirits live with humans in certain mountains and realms underground that they own.They would not eat bear or fish meat.The Apache would bathe in a lake to cleanse the spirit.The Apache belived that they were blood relatives with mother nature.They belived that they were the mountains ,the trees, rocks and the wind"4.

What is the Apache Sunrise Ceremony?

"The Apache Sunrise Ceremony or na'ii'ees is an arduous communal four-day ceremony that Apache girls of the past and present experience soon after their first menstruation. Through numerous sacred ceremonies, dances, songs, and enactments, the girls become imbued with the physical and spiritual power of White Painted Woman, and embrace their role as women of the Apache nation.

For most of the four days and nights, to songs and prayers, they dance, as well as run toward the four directions. During this time, they also participate in and conduct sacred rituals, receiving and giving both gifts and blessings, and experiencing their own capacity to heal.

In the early 1900s, when the U.S. government banned Native American spiritual practices and rituals, conducting the Sunrise Ceremony was an illegal act; as a result, its practice diminished, and those ceremonies that did occur were conducted secretly.

Not until 1978, when the American Indian Religious Freedom Act was passed, was the Sunrise Ceremony openly re-established on most reservations. But even today, because of the expense and time involved - which also includes four days of preparation and four days of teaching and recovery - some girls celebrate for one or two days, rather than have four day ceremonies. The families of girls entering puberty in a particular year may also sponsor joint Sunrise ceremonies, in which two or more newly menstruating girls celebrate the rites of Changing Women together"5.

What myth does the Sunrise ceremony re-enact?

"The first woman, White Painted Woman (also known as Esdzanadehe, and Changing Woman) survives the great Flood in an abalone shell, then wanders the land as the waters recede. Atop a mountain, she is impregnated by the sun, and gives birth of a son, Killer of Enemies. Soon afterwards, she is impregnated by the Rain, and gives birth to Son of Water.

However, the world the People live in is not safe until White Painted Woman's sons kill the Owl Man Giant who has been terrorizing the tribe. When they return from their victory, bringing the meat they have hunted, White Painted Woman expresses a cry of triumph and delight, which later will be echoed by the godmother at the Sunrise Ceremony. She then is guided by spirits to establish a puberty rite to be given for all daughter born to her people, and to instruct the women of the tribe in the ritual, and the rites of womanhood.

When she becomes old, White Painted Woman walks east toward the sun until she meets her younger self, merges with it, and becomes young again. Thus repeatedly, she is born again and again, from generation to generation"5.

What purpose does it serve for the girls who experience it?

"The Sunrise Ceremony serves many purposes - personally, spiritually and communally - and is often one of the most memorable and significant experiences of Apache females today, just as it was for Apache women in the past.

First, by re-enacting the Creation myth, and personifying White Painted Woman, the girl connects deeply to her spiritual heritage, which she experiences, often for the first time, as the core of her self. In her connection to Changing Woman/ White Painted Woman, she gains command over her weaknesses and the dark forces of her nature, and knows her own spiritual power, sacredness and her goodness. She also may discover her own ability to heal.

Second, she learns about what it means to become a woman, first through attunement to the physical manifestations of womanhood such as as menstruation (and learning about sexuality), as well as the development of physical strength and endurance. The rigorous physical training she must go through in order to survive four days of dancing and running is considerable, and surviving and triumphing during the "sacred ordeal" strengthens her both physically and emotionally. Most Apache women who have experienced the Sunrise Ceremony say afterwards that it significantly increased their self-esteem and confidence. When it ended, they no longer felt themselves to be a child; they truly experienced themselves as "becoming woman."

Third, the Apache girl entering womanhood experiences the interpersonal and communal manifestations of womanhood in her culture - the necessity to work hard, to meet the needs and demands of others, to exercise her power for others' benefit, and to present herself to the world, even when suffering or exhausted, with dignity and a pleasant disposition. Her temperament during the ceremony is believed to be the primary indicator of her temperament throughout her future life.

Not only does she give to the community - food, gifts, healings, blessings, but she also joyfully receives from the community blessings, acceptance and love. Throughout the ceremony, she receives prayers and heartfelt wishes for prosperity, wellbeing, fruitfulness, a long life, and a healthy old age.

Finally, the Sunrise ceremony serves the community as well as the girls entering womanhood. It brings extended families and tribes together, strengthening clan obligations, reciprocity and emotional bonds, and deepening the Apache's connection to his or her own spiritual heritage"5.

What does the ceremony involve?

"The Sunrise Ceremony involves extensive preparation and teaching, often lasting six months or more before the ritual begins. Much of the preparation, such as creating the girl's highly symbolic costume, and building the lodge, requires following complex procedures and rituals; another facet of preparation is a physical regime oriented toward strengthening the girl's physical endurance. Her family also is engaged in extensive food preparation, since throughout the ceremony, they will be providing food and gifts to all participants and visitors.

Once the actual ceremony begins, the girl is guided by her sponsor and the medicine man through its many stages, including hours each day and night of dancing (the number of hours increasing each day and night), often in tandem with a companion whom she chooses as a means of support through the ceremony. Rituals of running are also important - running east toward the sun at dawn, and running toward all four directions - symbolically through the "four stages of life."

Other features of the ceremony include: re-enacting Changing Woman's story, the massaging the girl's body by her sponsor so that she is "molded" into Changing Woman, singing, chanting and praying throughout most of the night, the nightly dances of the Ga'an or Mountain Spirits and accompanying clown, and the throwing of buckskin blankets toward the four directions.

The girl is also painted (actually covered) with a sacred mixture of cornmeal and clay, which she must not wash off throughout the entire ceremony. During the last day, she blesses her people with pollen, as well as "heals" all members of her tribe who seek her healing touch and blessing; she also receives many gifts from her people"5.

Who participates?

"Most of the extended family of an Apache girl are involved in preparing her puberty ceremony. The most central figure is the sponsoring godmother, followed by the medicine man and Gans Crown Dancers.

The family take special care in choosing the godmother, who will be a role model and have a special relationship with the girl throughout her life. As her primary attendant in the Sunrise ceremony, the godmother will dance with her both day and night, massage her, help inspirit her and care for her when she is exhausted, give her food and drink, and prepare a huge dinner for all her relations. She therefore must be strong, energetic and committed.

When choosing a godmother, the family visits her residence at dawn, and places an eagle feather on her foot, offering her also a prayer stone and gifts as they request her to serve as godmother to their daughter. They may only ask four godmothers; acceptance is indicated by picking up the feather from her foot.

The medicine man also has an important role, and must be approached in a similar manner. He will preside over much of the ceremony, chanting dozens of songs and prayers, and both orchestrating and paying the singers and drummers that will accompany him.

Another female relative, usually an older sister or cousin, is also actively involved, dancing along with the girl throughout much of her ceremony, supporting her when her energy flags"5.

When and where is it celebrated today?

"Today, approximately one third of Apache girls are believed to have a Sunrise puberty ceremony - whether for four days, one day, or jointly shared with other girls of a similar age. The White Mountain Apaches of Arizona and the Fort Apache Indian Reservation sponsor about twenty Sunrise ceremonies per year, most occurring from Friday-Monday in spring or summer. Public ceremonies which outsiders may attend, and which involve several girls, occur on the Fort Apache reservation and the Mescalero reservation of New Mexico on July 4th weekend.

The work involved in sponsoring a sunrise ceremony is enormous, as is the cost, which approximates $10,000 per ceremony. The sponsoring godmother must be paid, as must the medicine man and the Gans dancers, and food must be provided for four days to the entire community. In addition, the girl's White Painted Woman costume and adornments are costly. For these reasons, extended families contribute their time and/or money, and girls may sometimes wait a year or more so that their families may join with other families to share the expenses and workload of preparing the ceremony with the families of other girls soon to enter puberty"5.

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1. http://impurplehawk.com/apache.html, Date accessed: 17/06/08

2. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/may/24/usa.jonathanjones, Date accessed: 17/06/08

3. http://www.greatdreams.com/apache/apache-tribe.htm, Date accessed: 17/06/08

4. http://library.thinkquest.org/5731/ceremonies.html, Date accessed: 19/06/08

5. http://www.webwinds.com/yupanqui/apachesunrise.htm, Date accessed: 19/06/08

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HOMEWORK

THE APACHE FAMILY

The Apache families establish a social organization where each people are charge with a specific labour. For example, the mother have to care the children and she have to cook, furthermore she are the head of the house and make decisions. Additionally, the Apache men have to hunt animals such as bears and buffalos while the children have to learn these assignments.

Moreover, the Apaches used the matriarchal discipline based in the leadership of the Apache women. This tribe is composed by families and clans. The legacy and the culture rich that they left us helped to maintain and remember the traditions in these times. Besides, the religious devotion was a common practice in this tribe.

RITUALS

The Apaches believed in supernatural powers. They thought that the spirits have been guide their way and gave them cleverness in order to solution problems. Their rituals are characterized by protecting their family and sending them good luck. Furthermore, they believed that they were mountains, rivers, trees and rocks.

Their most relevant ritual was The Apache Sunrise, a ceremony celebrated when the Apache girls have their first menstruation. This symbolized the turn from girl to adult. The dances and song were significant elements in order to celebrate this sacred ceremony. The strengthening personal and spiritual were the purposes of this ritual.

HERO

The hero of Apaches was Geronimo. He was the person in charge to train and guide the troops in order to fight and defend their lands and cultural systems. Moreover, Geronimo was the war leader. He expected to care and offer protection to Apache people, his strategies consisted in adapt his fight elements depending the situation so that defeat the enemy.

He was died in an ambush organized by Mexican army. Nowadays, Geronimo is remembered by his character, power of decision and strength. Furthermore, he demonstrated his intelligence in order to handle troops and direct the community warriors.

Causes and Effects Essay

APACHES A GREAT CULTURE SINCE THEIR BEGINNING

"Apachean people are natives of eastern Arizona, northwestern Mexico, New Mexico, and parts of Texas. Nowadays, for effects of reservation, they live in Arizona and New Mexico, where there are more than fifty thousand Apache Indians"[1]. Actually, they have a significant role in society and they expect to maintain their culture and traditions, although, worldwide development makes this difficult.

The Apache Indians are a strong civilization and they organized their culture with projection. They are identified by theirs strength and hard spirit. Their rituals are characterized by protecting their family and sending them good luck. The Apaches were warriors and this consequently let them remain and adapt their culture.

Undoubtedly, the transcendence of Apache Indians is meaningful because they kept their traditions in culture. Moreover, they didn’t lose their identity, although, they have been changing some customs due to worldwide development. For example, "Apache children are allowed to attend school today and many of them have become successful in society and equally important in education. Apaches have also been very active in business and industries".[2]

Finally, The Apache Indians had been changing some customs, but they maintain their thoughts and ideas even if worldwide development changes every year. They learn to adapt their customs and transcend in the world.

By: Sofía Vargas
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[1]Took from: http://members.tripod.com/Archaeology_Man/family.html.

[2] Sneve, Virginia Driving Hawk. The Apaches. New York: Holiday House, 1997, 28.

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Causes and Effects Essay

THE DISINFORMATION IN THE WORLD, THE DOOR OF A WAR

(Correction)

War changes the worldwide order; it produced serious consequence for people such as poverty and indiference. The last war between Iraq and The United States was in 2003 and it was a difficult situation for the Iraquies, because they lost their families, friends and properties. They lived the hard moments when US troops and revellious people fought in order to obtain power and control in the country.The lack of information is the first fact that began this war as well as the lack of clear norms that contribute with the organization of world.

On the other hand, when the war began, US sent troops to Iraq, the consecuence was the increase of numbers of murderes in a short term of time. According to BBC News, “more than 4,300 coalition soldiers have died - 4,000 of them Americans and the health ministry estimates in November 2006 ranged from 100,000 to 150,000 dead”.[1] Morover, due to the lack of a leadership that protects the country caused adverse effects like military weakening and it created panic in the Iraquies.

There is a real problem, as a result of the war, the place was destroied and the people had been suffering the cosequences, they had to find a new place where can live without risk, but it was imposible to find in this nation. Fortunately for iraqies, countries like France offer assistance “French Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner was in Iraq to offer help in rebuilding the country and promoting national reconciliation”[2].

Finally, the disinformation and the lack of clear norms cause adverse effects, this is a dangerous strategy used by politician in order to mantein the power and control; equally important, is the consolidation of dialogue in the world because this avert tragedies like war. Morover, to stop with this problem is in our hands, if everybody take concience about the situation, war like this could be avoid

By: Sofía Vargas

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[1] BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/629/629/7036068.stm. Date accessed: 9/06/08

[2] BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7429074.stm. Date accessed: 9/06/08

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COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

RITUALS

	APACHE TRIBE	INUET TRIBE
Difference	“The Apache belived that there was once supernatural beings that lived with people”. “The Apache belived that they were blood relatives with mother nature.They belived that they were the mountains, the trees, rocks and the wind”. “He Apache fear of the dead and everything connected with them. Thus, they usually buried the dead the same day they died in order to avoid any contacts with them. The Apache made the burial as far away as possible”.	“The shaman or Eskimo were thought to have special abilities in relating to the supernatural powers”. “The Eskimo believed that the universe was at harmony with its elements and that the natural and supernatural powers possessed a neutral position towards man”. “They are Psychopomp that accompanying souls, they know the ways of death and making flights or travel underworld, beside, they rescue dead from the hands of the spirits of the underworld”.
similarity	“People guided by spirits to establish control and normality”. “The Apaches were nomadic hunter”	“They see and know about the invisible, the spirits that control phenomenon such as rain, disease, etc”. “The Inuit were traditionally hunters”.

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING ESSAY

APACHE AND INUIT TRIBES AND THEIR RITUALS

The American tribes are very relevant in order to maintain culture and traditions; with their help people can understand the present times and plan their furure. Apache and Inuit are cultures specifically of North America; they are significant cultures because they contributed the society with their knowledge and experience about life. Morover, Apache and Inuit shared some customs that people remember in these times like their rituals and belief in spirits, although, they shared more different similarities.

Although both cultures are native from North America, they have some differences between them. For example “The Apache belived that they were blood relatives with mother nature.They belived that they were the mountains, the trees, rocks and the wind”[1], In contrast, the Eskimo believed that the universe and its elements were in harmoy and that the supernatural powers were a neutral position towards man.

Moreover, both thought in a different manner about dead people, while The Apaches feared and hate and they buried the dead the same day they died. On the contrary, the Eskimo were “psychopomp that accompanying souls, they know the ways of death and making flights or travel underworld, beside, they rescue dead from the hands of the spirits of the underworld”[2].

Nevertheless, they had some similarities like the Apache belived in spirits; they thought that the spirits stablished the power and control in their civilization, whereas, the Eskimo belived that some spitiris controled the rain and disease. Moreover, the Apaches and the Inuits were traditionally hunters.

Finally, North America has two considerable civiliations whish one the Apaches and Inuits; these tribes were significative by their legacies, traditions and customs. Their rituals characterized them as strong and smart people; it let people project the future with more intelligence.

By: Sofía Vargas

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[1] http://library.thinkquest.org/5731/ceremonies.html, Date accessed: 19/06/08

[2] http://intermediatehuron.blogspot.com/, Date accessed: 19/06/08

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COMPARING AND CONTRASTING ESSAY

KENNEDY AND CARTER DURING THEIR POLITIC PERIOD

The politician are very relevant, they influence people and make hard decisions. They handle country’s economy and security. Those who want to be politician need political values like responsibility, diplomacy, respect others nation and a hard power of decision and conviction. This was the key that some politicians like John F. Kennedy and Jimmy Carter used when they were president of The United States of America.

In spite of, the fact that they handled the same country, they changed the strategy in order to obtain more power and direct The United States. For example, John F. Kennedy during his period led politic events like: “The Cuban Missiles Crisis, the building of the Berlin Wall and Bay of Pigs Invasion”[1]; it was a hard situation in comparison with Jimmy Carter, who includes events during his administration like “the Panama Canal Treaties and the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)”[2].

Although, they are different, Kennedy and Carter have thing in common; for example, the use of strategies was direct in order to find the common good in The US; in their period was characterized by they implemented political low so that they could maintain the peace and offer protection in their country. Moreover, both were smart politician that tried to implement new order in the world.

Finally, Carter and Kennedy were meaningful and a key part of US politic. Also, they kept the political values and maintained hard power of decision and conviction.

By: Sofía Vargas
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[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy

2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carter

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COMPARING AND CONTRASTING ESSAY

URIBE VS. CHÁVEZ

In South America the handle of politicies is a difficult situation that continously affect several countries and their borders. Specifically, Álvaro Uribe and Hugo Chávez are two Latin American presidents that everytime fight in order to obtain power, prestige and credibility. The last times, they are famous because they quarrel by National security in Colombia and the freedom of some Colombians people. Although, they are neighbour, they don’t have a good relationship, and only some times handle diplomacy.

In spite of, their difficult relationship, Uribe and Chávez share some similarities between them like their job, both are Latin American presidents, also they are well-know and they like have permanent contact with people that they can help. Too, they know to handle the mass media and manipulate the information. Likewise, they had to do again presidential political period and they expect to follow with the power over and over times.

Nevertheless, they keep big differences beween them just like political trends, Uribe is capitalist and Chávez is socialist. Moreover, their physical appearances change completely, while Uribe is short, Chávez is height; furthermore, Uribe is skin in contrast Chávez is fat. On the other hand, their political values are differents, whereas Uribe Keep the diplomacy on the contrary Chávez prefer to be rebellious.

Finally, spite of they share a similar context, they keep their differences in the political handle; their have a little alike, and they are careful with their decisions because it let them maintain control, prestige and credibility.

By: Sofía Vargas